Relationship Between Drug Use and Crime

Relationship Between Drug employment and CrimeReviewing experimental investigate examining the affinity surrounded by medicate office and horror. Undeniably, at that place is a strong standoff in the midst of extramarital dose engagement and woeful activity, which appears to be consistent across much of the trial-and-error books with affection to the family betwixt medicine role and abhorrence. (Moore, T. et.al, 2007, p.369) However, the relationship among drug hire and hatred is complex and self-propelled, often associated with entrenched social and health problems such(prenominal) as unemployment, socio economic inequality, and poor mental health. offerd more than, the complexity of the relationship yet develops with the colligates being neither simple or linear, nor habitual across offending. (Raskin White Gorman, 2002)Goode argues that drugs and wickedness are intimately cogitate in the man mind and suggest currently, that drugs and curse a re connected in a very specific way and whether their conjunction bears directly on a specific issue of whether or non shoes horror would decline on a lower floor decriminalisation of certain unlawful centers. (1997).The issue that comes to the root word is that on that point is sometimes a tendency in the literature, and form _or_ system of government and public debate, to over simplify and over-draw the links amongst these dickens phenomena. This is supported in the work of Makkai (2002) whereby the production line that much of the Australian talk overion on unlawful drugs and abhorrence is ill defined, simplistic, and lacking in evidence where an assumption that there is a causal relationship amidst drug part and crime is made without sufficient supporting evidence. (p. 113) Furthermore, Raskin White and Gorman also supports the view of Makkai stating, policy makers assume that an important connection between drugs and crime exist, however the microscopic natur e of the connection remains elusive.There is clear evidence in literature suggesting and supporting that drug handling and crime tend to be associated or co-existing in the same commonwealths. Within Australian literature this evidence is contained within the studies of Kevin, 1999 Loxley, 2001 Makkai, 1999 and Makkai, 2001.Interestingly, when reviewing literature examining the drugs and crime nexus, the body of search pertaining to offending/drug affair careers and initiation into drug use provide useful cortical potential into the relationship. Pudney (2002) Best et al (2001a) argue that the onset of criminal behaviour mostly precedes the onset of initial and/or regular drug use. This assertion is exhibit experimentally whereby 17 per pennyime of prisoners reported illicit drug use prior to offending, 29 per cent report that crime and drug use occurred at the same age, entirely offending before the commencement of illicit drug use was reported at 54 per cent. These resul ts that generally the life history drug-using/ criminal career begins with the onset of offending, then illicit drug use, with inveterate cycle of regular offending and regular drug use (Makkai Payne, 2003a, p10). Moreover, this bolsters the relationship between drug use and crime.The aim of this paper is to review the literature regarding the relationship between drug use and crime, crabbedly the abstractive models and the empirical evidence surrounding the three main theories in secern to fancy gaps in the research and to identify future trends and research parameters regarding the relationship between drugs and crime. The three main theories to be examined is the assertion that substance use subscribes to crime, crime leads to substance use and that crime and drug use have habitual causes.As stated during the introduction the relationship between drugs and crime is dynamic and complex. There are a variety of ways into and out of the drug offending nexus which diverge be tween individuals and according to a swear of factors. For example, Scott et al 2001 state the links between drugs and crime can vary according to factors such as age (p.161), or sex as argued by Mazerolle (2008) Johnson (2004) Haas Peters (2000), or the order of introduction as to whether drug use or offending came basic (Farabee et al, 2001). Furthermore, according to Scott et al 2001, that serious illicit drug use gives to continuity in serious crime, and vice versa, concluding that crime affects drug use and drug use affects crime (p.270) This argument is supported by both Best et al, 2001a, p161 and Welte et al, 2001, p436 who suggest a two way relationship between drug use and offending.Theories concerning the relationship between drug use and crimeSubstance use leads to crimeGoldstein, considered the first to originally develop the system between the relationship of drugs and crime, suggested three break away explanations of how the link occurs. Goldstein asserts that psychopharmacological, economic motivation and a systemic surmisal formulate the drugs and crime nexus. (1985) The first explanation and describe as the psychopharmacological surmisal defines, that the short or long term use of certain drugs produces natural effects which lead to offending behaviour. This theory has been applied to both keeping and violent crime, but it is mainly associated with violent offending and attributes acute or chronic intoxication or the effects of drug withdrawal as contributing factors towards criminal behaviour.This psychopharmacological theory gains support in research conducted by Lo Stephens (2002) proposing that offenders were (or claimed to be) intoxicate with illicit drugs at the time of the criminal offense (p 125). Further research within Australia also suggest within Drug delectation Monitoring Australia (DUMA) data that 34 per centum of police detainees claimed to be under the influence of an illicit drug when they sendted the umbr age, furthermore 14 percent claimed to be under the influence of alcohol. Further support is provided to Goldsteins initial theory in Indermaurs (1995, p 156) Western Australian study of robbery that assemble 52.8 per cent of offenders reported being under the influence of illicit drugs at the time of offending and 5.7 per cent were experiencing the effects of withdrawal.The objective of the Drug Use Careers of Offenders (DUCO) project is to further understand the drug use and criminal histories of incarcerated offenders and to support to the empirical evidence on the link between drug use and crime. In the example of the DUCO study, questions regarding whether the offender was intoxicated and whether the offender perpetrateted the offence because they were intoxicated were asked. The study found that 24 per cent of prisoners reported they were intoxicated with illicit drugs, 17 per cent with both illicit substances and alcohol, and 21 per cent just with alcohol. However, these p roportions more than halved when examining whether the crimes could be asserted to be causally attributed to intoxication, with 10 per cent for illicit drugs, 8 per cent for both and 9 per cent for alcohol only (Adams et al, 2008 Makkai Payne, 2003a, p16).Although research asserts that there is some significance of the psychopharmacological theory in explicateing the link between drugs and crime, ambivalence surrounds the culmination. For example, the Australasian reduce for Policing Research (ACPR, 2001, p15 16) conclude that it is probable that intoxication by either drugs and/or alcohol plays a role in the dynamics of the drugs and crime nexus, but that it should not be overestimated. Additionally, Raskin White Gorman (2000 p.185) MacCoun et.al (2001, p. 5) argue that the psychopharmacological theory relieves subatomic in terms of the relationship between drugs and crime.The second theory to explain the drugs and crime nexus is termed the economic compulsive and suggests that crime is tutelageed in order to finance a drug habit. Makkai, 2002b argues that this theory primarily relates to property crimes, however may also relate to violent crime such as robbery where violence may be used during the commission of a property crime (p111 113). Support for this theory is derived by the research within Australia of Maher et al whereby high proportions of drug users report commit crime and in particular property offences to aid in paying for a drug habit (2002). These findings also concurs with Best et al, 2001a whose finding suggested that the most exemplary property crime was that of shoplifting (48 per cent of respondents), followed by burglary (28 per cent) then unarmed street robbery such as bag snatches and muggings (13 per cent). Furthermore, empirical studies examining the drugs and crime nexus such as Collins, 1999 and Nelson et al, 2002 asserts the tendency that burglary is the offence associated most with finance drug use, however not as hig h as the income derived from offenders problematical in drug selling. (Weatherburn et al, 2003, p193). Pritchard Payne cite that the main reasons for burglary are to support a drug habit (44 per cent of respondents), to obtain bullion or goods (42 per cent) and money was needed as a result of unemployment (41 per cent) 2005, p 46.In conclusion and although strong evidence has been provided in support of the theory, economic motivation cannot provide a complete explanation of the link between drugs and crime, however does contribute and explain why crime accelerates as addiction increases (ACPR, 2001, p.16). Furthermore, Bennett Holloway (2005) Raskin White Gorman (2001) identifies gaps in the research where there is a need to distinguish between opposite categories of drug users when examining the relationship between drugs and crime.Systemic theory as examined by Goldstein suggest the engagement within drug market activities results in offending, that is, drug related crime r esults from negative interactions in the illegal drug market, where it is argued that dissemination and use of illicit drugs are inherently connected to the commission of crime, with particular reference to crimes of violence (Raskin White Gorman, 2000, p191)Reiss Roth argues that systemic crime is associated with drug diffusion through organisational crime, transaction related crime and third party related crime. Although there is some anecdotal evidence suggesting a strong connection between drugs and crime, however as Bean (2002) asserts, research on organize crime outside the United States is limited and states that it does not directly discuss the relationship between organised crime and drugs and, furthermore the literature acquirable could be classed as journalistic in nature rather than empirical research. On the other hand, Findlay states without drug trafficking, dealing and use being illegal, lettuce would not be assured (1999, p.26), which in turn suggest that dru g related crime is an artefact of law and policy (McBride et al, 2001, p5).Crime leads to substance useThe second proposed theory is that offenders are more liable(predicate) to blend illegal drug users. Thus, individuals who are deviate are more likely to be involved or choose social situations where drug use condoned or encouraged. Raskin White Gorman state that this theory may arise when deviant individuals use drugs to self medicate or to provide and excuse to commit deviant or criminal acts (2000, p174.) or that income from criminal acts providing additional income enables the offender to purchase drugs, contrasting the previous theory of drugs compelling the offender to commit a crime. In short, both overarching theories receive support and even repay each other in the sense that crime may lead to drug use and drug use may lead to more crime.Crime and drug use have common causesThe third theory suggests that crime and drug use are not directly causally related to each oth er, however are related due to manduction other common causes in terms of individual level, interpersonal level, environmental and situational factors. Pudney states that social, economic and family circumstances appear to be influences on young peoples risk of becoming involved in both crime and drug use (2002, p28)A range of risk factors (which may increase the likelihood of an offence occurring) and protective factors (which reduce the impact of an unavoidable negative event) are described within this theory where Weatherburn et al simply state that were risk factors overbalance protective factors, the greater the likelihood of becoming in drugs and/or crime (2000 p 49 -53) and there is considerable overlap and relationship between illicit drug use and offense (ACPR, 2001, p28).After describing the drugs and crime association within this literature review it is possible to conclude and identify recommendations for further research. No one individual theory can adequately expla in the drugs and crime nexus in every instance, furthermore the relationship between drugs and crime is very complex, whereby the conclusions researched on this topic vary and depend on which area the researcher examines and interprets the data. Furthermore, consideration to all theories is prudent in order to develop a true assessment of this relationship.Illicit drug use and crime are mutually reinforcing where both can precede the other, and be interrelated with a broad range of other variables, however there is no required criteria or necessary causal links between the relationship. That is, most drug users do not engage in sin and there is an absence of evidence suggesting that drug use in and of itself causes criminality, and that criminality in and of itself forces people into drug use. With this say, drugs are important within the circumstance of violence and property crime (MacCoun et al, 2001, p2), where the drug using offending population commit a disproportionate amou nt of crime.Although it can be said that the drugs and crime nexus is intimate, further research is necessary to assist in further defining and understanding the links, where the methods of disaggregation or examining specific areas may parent beneficial and give greater clarity such as, the relationship between crime and particular kinds of drugs, connecting empirical findings to drugs and crime theories, and researching the casual connection between drugs and crime. Finally, an area of interest to the writer to identify gaps in the research pertaining to the drugs and crime nexus is drug use in prison.This paper reviewed a outlet of studies in reference to the relationship between drugs and crime in an sudor to illustrate the complexity of the connection. After examining the link the paper discussed three theoretical models which endeavour to explain the relationship the psychopharmacological link the economic-compulsive link and the systemic link. Drug users dependency on expe nsive drugs where affordability is lacking demonstrates the closest link between drugs and crime however even with this example the relationship is not automatic due to crime not being an inevitable military issue of drug use. Finally, involvement in crime is also dependent on economic, social and cultural contexts, not simply drug use.